"Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics"

Ten Commandments Of Computer Ethics

Created by the Computer Ethics Institute
If Duplicated, Please Cite the Computer Ethics Institute

1. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Harm Other People.
2. Thou Shalt Not Interfere With Other People’s Computer Work.
3. Thou Shalt Not Snoop Around In Other People’s Computer Files.
4. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Steal.
5. Thou Shalt Not Use A Computer To Bear False Witness.
6. Thou Shalt Not Copy Or Use Proprietary Software For Which You have Not Paid.
7. Thou Shalt Not Use Other People’s Computer Resources Without Authorization Or Proper Compensation.
8. Thou Shalt Not Appropriate Other People’s Intellectual Output.
9. Thou Shalt Think About The Social Consequences Of The Program You Are Writing Or The System You Are Designing.
10. Thou Shalt Always Use A Computer In Ways That Insure Consideration And Respect For Your Fellow Humans.

"The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics" were first presented in Dr. Ramon C. Barquin's paper, "In Pursuit of a 'Ten Commandments' for Computer Ethics."

Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility

Information Literacy and Ethics Pathfinder

Title of the Topic: Information Literacy and Ethics for Middle and High School Students

Scope: The E-Pathfinder is designed to provide subject-based guides to resources on information literacy and information ethics. The E-Pathfinder resources include brief annotations, which are intended to inform teachers, to guide instruction, and to be used by middle and high school students. The E-Pathfinder topics include: Academic Honesty, Assessment Criteria, Computer Ethics, Copyright and Fair Use, Ethical Codes, Evaluation of Information Resources, Information Literacy Standards, Intellectual Property, Internet Research, Piracy, Social Responsibility, and Use of Electronic Communication Tools.

Targeted Audience: Resources for middle and high school teachers and their students, concerning information literacy and ethical issues related to information resources and the access and use of information in a variety of formats. The purpose of the E-Pathfinder is to assist teachers in helping middle and high school students develop information literacy while becoming proficient and responsible users of information resources, information technology, and information systems.

Code of Ethics for Educators

Professional Codes guide educators in serving students responsibly. By studying various codes, educators receive guidance in evaluating the ethical foundation of their teaching practice.

"Ethics matters because it helps us to act responsibly" (Hauptman, 2002, p. 139)

Hauptman, R. (2002). Ethics and librarianship. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

Code of Ethics of the Education Profession

NEA Code of Ethics of the Ecucation Profession

ASIS&T Professional Guidelines

Ethics and Innovation

Ethics regarding any innovation must be considered in the context of its development and application!

• Applied Ethics Resources on WWW

• Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility

• Resources on Computer and Ethics

• A Critical Campus Concern, Information Ethics

Just Consequentialism and the Potter Box in Information Ethics

The situation: You are working doing website development for a non-profit organization that has patrons/users from several different language groups, English and two others. Describe how you would decide how to deal with providing access to all of the users and how you would convince your supervisors and others that the expenditure for your time and expertise is worthwhile.

The Potter Box provides a model for making ethical decisions. The model categorizes ethical dilemmas within a four-step analytical framework. By defining the situation and analyzing the facts, “values, principles, and loyalties” (Black, 2003, sl. 7) it is possible to use applied ethics to make complex, socially responsible (Baker, 2001, p. 168) decisions.

The first step in applying the Potter Box approach requires defining the situation objectively, identifying the relevant facts that are at issue in the situation, and providing detailed information related to the ethical dilemma. The facts of the selected situation involve questions about providing web-based access to users from three different language groups, including English. The identified dilemma can be defined in regard to the question of the ethical obligation that does or does not exist on the part of the non-profit organization to provide access to web-based information in languages that all patrons can comprehend. If some patrons cannot understand English, is the organization obligated to present web content equitably (Baker, 2001, p. 164) in relevant languages so that all patrons can retrieve the information provided?

The next step in the analytical process involves identifying the values of the non-profit organization. In this situation, the assumption is that the organization is interested in providing web-based access to all patrons. While the time involved in creating access for people from language groups other than English may be a concern, it is clear that patrons who do not understand English will not be able to use the web-based information unless that information is provided in all relevant languages. Cost-based concerns are not apparently an issue in this situation. If the primary concern of the organization is providing respectful access and autonomy (Baker, 2001, p. 163) for all interested patrons, then providing access that facilitates the comprehension and use of information by all patrons, regardless of their language, is a core value. While English may be a primary and universal language, the result of offering information only in English compared to offering the information in all languages relevant to the organization patrons, means that a limited group of English-speaking patrons will find the organization website useful.

The principles on which the non-profit organization is based can be applied to this situation. If a core value is accessibility for all patrons, then principles of utility dictate that the website should be designed to meet the needs of all patrons, including the presentation of information in all relevant languages. According to John Stuart Mill's “Principle of Utility”, it is essential to seek the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Based on this ethical philosophy, the organization website should be available in all languages represented by the organization’s patrons. As an additional philosophical consideration, John Rawls' “Veil of Ignorance” requires the organization to consider the perspective of the patrons affected by decisions about the presentation of the website. How will patrons feel if they cannot access the information on the website because they cannot understand the language in which the information is presented? Based on the Judeo-Christian “Persons as Ends” principle, the organization is obligated to follow the “golden rule” when considering the needs of patrons. How would English-speaking patrons feel if they could not read the website? Alternatively, the principle of compromise or “Confucius' Golden Mean” and the principle of moderation or “Aristotle's Golden Mean” emphasize a moderate approach in decision-making. In this situation, compromise and moderation may require alternative methods of providing information for use by all patrons. These time-honored “modes of ethical reasoning” (Black, 2003, sl. 7), clarify how to compare and apply ethical principles to the situation, with the identified values of the organization being regarded as “categorical imperatives” (Wikipedia, 2006) based on maintaining patrons’ trust (Baker, 2001, p. 159) in regard to the issue and options under consideration.

In this situation, the web designer must determine whether allegiance is primarily to the organization or to the patrons. Since the non-profit organization is presumably intended to serve the patrons, the web designer can make a persuasive case for providing information in all relevant languages and not just English. If time is a concern for the organization, the web designer may offer to build the website in English initially, with a plan for adding translation of content to the two other languages. Based on the authentic (Baker, 2001, p. 161) service-orientation of the organization, the time and effort expended on providing web-based information in all relevant languages is in the best interests of the patrons, and therefore the organization.

In conclusion, based on analysis of the situation using the Potter Box model for decision-making, the web designer can confidently make an ethically-based case for presenting the organization website in English, initially and then adding the other two relevant languages. This course of action addresses the essential values, principles, and loyalties according to the facts presented in the defined situation. The ethically-based decision will allow the organization to present the website in a timely manner and also offer web-based content in all relevant languages because “vulnerable audiences must not be unfairly targeted” (Baker, 2001, p. 166). The impact of the decision means that the website will be available in English initially, but will eventually offer information in the two additional languages. Both the organization and all of the patrons will benefit from this decision, because no interests are disregarded.

However, since the Potter Box is “a linked system” (Wikipedia, 2006), the issues related to this situation can be reconsidered and analyzed from different perspectives within a “framework for ethical planning and evaluation” (Tilley, 2005, p. 317). In the situation presented, “the ethical evaluation of a given (decision or) policy requires the evaluation of the consequences of that (decision or) policy, and often the consequences of the (decision or) policy compared with the consequences of other possible (decisions or) policies” (Moor, 2004, p. 108). It is essential to remember that “Policies are rules of conduct… Policies recommend kinds of actions that are sometimes contingent upon different situations” (Moor, 2004, 107). Based on how the situation is defined, and different perspectives on the values, principles, and loyalties involved, different decisions and/or policies could be made to resolve the issues.


References

Backus, N. & Ferraris, C. (2004). Theory meets practice: Using the Potter box to teach business communication ethics. Proceedings from the 69th Annual Convention Cambridge, MA: The Association for Business Communication. Retrieved January 27, 2006, from http://www.businesscommunication.org/conventions/2004Proceedings.html

Baker, S. & Martinson, D.L. (2001). The TARES test: Five principles for ethical persuasion. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 16 (2 & 3), 148-175. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.

Black, J. (2003). Ethical decision-making models across the professions. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida. Retrieved January 26, 2006, from www.stpt.usf.edu/peec/Decisionmaking.pdf

Moor, J.H. ( 2004). Just consequentialism and computing. In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (eds.). Readings in cyberethics (2nd ed.) (pp. 107-113). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Wikipedia. (2006). Potter box. Wikipedia: The free encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved January 26, 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potter_Box

Tilley, E. (2005). The ethics pyramid: Making ethics unavoidable in the public relations process. Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 20 (4), 305-320. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum.

Teacher-Librarians

Librarians are obligated to take their role as teachers every bit as seriously as their roles as information organizers and providers. The responsibilitites of information specialists encompass a range of tasks related to information resources. Librarians must apply ethical decision-making strategies in a variety of situations regarding information provision, in order to meet their professional obligations to patrons and to the information itself. In these roles, teacher-librarians are truly public servants.

• ALA Code of Ethics

• ALA Intellectual Freedom Statements and Policies

• TILT

Applied Ethics, ICTs, and the Internet

In view of the potential consequences of decisions made in regards to regulation/control of Internet information resources, it seems that applying clearly defined evaluative criteria to issues involving ICTs and the Internet is imperative.

Information Ethics Tutorial

Tutorial Sections
The tutorial includes an introductory section, five main sections, and a quiz:

* Introduction provides an overview of the tutorial itself.
* Understanding instructs the reader about the basics of the copyright system.
* Student focuses on your rights and responsibilities in using copyrighted material in the academic setting.
* Plagiarism defines and describes the repercussions of using someone else's work as your own.
* Digital Copyright narrows the focus to the legalities of all digital media.
* Alternatives provides other types of intellectual property rights, such as Creative Commons or Public Domain.

Each section contains a number of sub-sections. While the sections are arranged in a logical progression, each section can stand on its own, so it is not necessary to follow them in sequence.

Applied Ethics

View Across Decades

Anne, your descriptive blog touched me in a very personal way.
My husband and I were children of the fifties; he grew up to go to Vietnam as a Special Forces Green Beret. We met in grad school at a time when computers were huge square boxes that fit entire rooms, and computer science meant learning a language based on X and O.

When we married, seven of our nine children were born at home, the first three in a one-room homestead cabin on an isolated Montana ranch. We raised cattle, and kept horses, chickens, pigs, and goats. Our food was grown in huge gardens under the hot dry Montana summer sky, and our babies wore cloth diapers. We did not have running water, let alone a TV. We were regarded as "hippies," though we definitely did not characterize ourselves that way. We considered our lifestyle as an alternative to what we perceived as the conventional 9-5 rat-race.

Living in one room on an isolated ranch, we read A LOT of books. Ironically, our oldest son graduated from Harvard Law School, and our oldest daughter is a grad student at U of Penn, having completed her undergraduate degree at Swarthmore. The only phone they knew as young children was a party line-- and information sharing was neighbors listening in on conversations.

As my husband entered the personal computer age in the 80s, I obstinately refused to participate-- after all, I owned a bookstore, and the information I found in books had always provided ample resources for my needs.
However, when he was in high school, my second-oldest son-- child #3-- "turned me on" to computers-- and oh my goodness, the information I found! I was fascinated by web-based linking.

Needless to say, we now have 4 dialup computers in our home-- a laptop for my husband, a laptop for son #4--child #5, a desktop for daughter #2-- child #6, and the computer I use for classes, business, etc. Son # 5--child #7 created an amazing 58-slide power point complete with sound and animation for an 8th grade language arts project last week.
I still do not watch TV-- though we have an incomprehensible # of channels available. I still love the printed word.
I like to think that ICTs have not compromised our family's capacity to communicate with one another-- ICT tools definitely make it easier to keep in touch with our older children-- even when they are in Baghdad! (Son #2). However, at this point in my life I am well aware of the laws of energy-- nothing new is created, and new forms necessarily supplant others. Hopefully, "being connected" still depends on the fact that we are human, not whether we have "access"...

Sorry to overpersonalize, but your post reminded my of my own route to the "teacher-librarian information-specialist" profession, and for that I thank you!

"Real Western Around Here"

Bill Kittredge, a writer friend and mentor, used to say, "It's about to get real western around here."
Bill used his metaphor as a way of explaining what he perceived to be crazy, wild and unexplainable behavior.

The Internet can be perceived as "real western" in the sense that regulation, if it exists at all, is unpredictable, rather localized, certainly not comprehensive, impulsive, and subject to vigilate-like maneuvering based on violent emotions, paranoia, outright crime, and an unfettered entrepreneurial spirit.

The West was settled thanks to a dominating urge for expansionism and supposed opportunity, based to a large extent on the concept of Manifest Destiny, as well as various social, economic, and political factors. Those same forces, and the same perception of entitlement and captialistic perrogatives seem to underlie the development of the Internet and ICTs.

Significantly, we can foresee drawbacks to exponential expansion via the Internet that parallel the movement across the "wild, wild West". The perceived drawbacks of both expansive developments are based on the fact that there was (is) no real plan, no documented long-term vision, and no extablished rules of development and operation.

Politics and Ethics

An examination of "Personal Privacy Protection: The Legislative Response" (Hernon, 199) is particularly interesting and timely in light of the recent attempt to access Google search records, the 6 month renewal of the Patriot Act, and increasing concerns about identity theft.

The library science resource: "United States Government Information: Policies and Sources" describes the "evolving value" (Hernon, 199) of privacy as a concept, and the resulting attempts on the part of the U.S. Government to protect, control, and regulate privacy via legistlated policies and delineated rights. Chapter 9 presents a history of legislative decisions and the resulting policies created in response to evolving developments information and communication technologies.

Based on the policies presented in Chapter 9, the legislative intention seems to be focused on preserving the concept of privacy while responding to changing technologies and the fact that technology provides increased access to personal information, whether directly or via data manipulation and mining.

Since evolving ICT formats are capable of compromising security, the government realized that security provisions and regulation were needed if the conceptual basis of individual privacy was to be preserved. Based on the history of legislation related to privacy, most legislative policies and regulations were enacted as privacy protection measures. By placing limits on access, the U.S. Government has attempted to preserve the concept and expectation of personal privacy.

The U.S. Government creates initiatives like HIPAA designed to protect an individual’s right to privacy, and then enacts the Patriot Act, which forces companies (like banks) to compile much more information than is needed to open a checking account in order to “prevent terrorism”. However, this recent legislation is particularly controversial because the security of personal information and privacy is unquestionably compromised. Legislation definitely affects our ethical perspective and vice versa.


Hernon, P., Relyea, H.C., Dugan, R. E., & Cheverie, J.F. (2002). United States Government information: Policies and sources. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Technology IS Political

The focus is not only on the possibility that "artifacts have politics" (Winner), but on the reality that technology is a real political force.
Since "freedom of information is a dynamic concept in government information policy and practice" (Hernon, 165), the pervasive effect of ICTs are clear, because information availability, access, and use is more and more dependent on ICTs and their ability to function reliably yet securely.
Indeed, "public inforamtion dissemination" (Hernon, 191) is governed by policies that mandate ownership "by the people, held in trust by the government, ...and available to the people except where restricted by law" (Hernon, ibid.).
It is the creation and dismantling of restrictions that should concern the people, for ultimately, government-based rules and restrictions regarding information resources and ICTs will determine when and how and whether the digital divide is bridged more than any social or economic factors concerning who "has" or does not "have" information and/or the ICTs that distinguish the "haves" and "have-nots".

Hernon, P., Relyea, H.C., Dugan, R. E., & Cheverie, J.F. (2002). United States Government information: Policies and sources. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Winner, L. (1986). Do Artifacts have Politics? The whale and the reactor: a search for limits in an age of high technology (pp. 19-39). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Rules and Politics

The social and economic context of information creation, dissemination, access, and use definitely affect availability of resources. Our society is so possession- oriented, having a preoccupation with supply and demand, that those who have access to information must be compared and contrasted with those who do not.
However, since "rulemaking... enables the public to receive information about a law or agency or policy, participate in the formulation of that law and policy, and hold the agency accountable in applying that law or policy" (Hernon, 243) rules and regulations about information access and use become political issues as well as potential social and economic barriers.
In order to function effectively and efficiently, the rules that are made regarding information resources and ICTs must be not only economically feasible and socially expedient for the majority, but also politically correct.
Afterall, equitable access to information is the factor that makes democracy feasible and the democratic process possible, based on every citizen's ability to access multiple points of view, come to individual conclusions based on the available information, and act on informed opinions within the framework of established democratic processes.

Hernon, P., Relyea, H.C., Dugan, R. E., & Cheverie, J.F. (2002). United States Government information: Policies and sources. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Evolving ICTs and the Inscrutable Internet

The Internet and evolving ICT formats have unquestionably broadened communication global communication capabilities and expanded options for sharing all kinds of information and communicating with others.
However, "in the aftermath of the September 11 terrorist attacks, debate over the issue of law enforcement monitoring of electronic mail and Web use has intensified, with some advocating indreased tools for law enforcement to track down terrorists an others cautioning that fundamental tents of democracy, such as privacy, should not be endangerend in that pursuit" (Hernon, p. 220). If anything, the issue public safety vs. the infringement of personal rights has only intensified in the years since 9/11.
While the continuintg development and improvement of ICT resources has increased information availability beyond what most people could have imagined even a few years ago, that very abundance has also confused established policies and protocols that guided information use and conventional communication. Although the expansive options are exciting based on seemingly limitless possibilities for sharing ourselves and our knowledge with others, it is the expansive and unlimited nature of ICT potential that makes issues surrounding information ethics so urgent, and the need for ethical answers and well-considered solutions so pressing.

Hernon, P., Relyea, H.C., Dugan, R. E., & Cheverie, J.F. (2002). United States Government information: Policies and sources. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Information Literacy:
How does it differ from Traditional or Computer Literacy?

Privacy Despite Access or vice versa

Based on the comprehensive use of information technology and resources, information ethics is definitely an interdisciplinary concern. The information technology and communication infrastructure affects nearly every aspect of contemporary experience, from education to business and economics. Established policies governing privacy and the dissemination of public, private, and personal information are not always adequate for addressing issues and concerns related to current ICT developments and practices.
"Information policy... is organized around the information life cycle" (Hernon, 193) Key issues concerning the development of use-based policies must be resolved in regards to managing electronic information resources in ways that are legally and morally acceptable while also protecting personal records yet permitting maximum access.

Hernon, P., Relyea, H.C., Dugan, R. E., & Cheverie, J.F. (2002). United States Government information: Policies and sources. Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Computer Security and Internet Security

The Digital Divide

The consequences of the digital divide involve more than creating opportunities for equal access to information and communication technology and electronic information resources. Equitable access depends on education in information literacy.
Information literacy standards provide a foundation for evaluating proficiencey based on specific indicators for information literacy skills.

"Information Literacy is defined as the ability to know when there is a need for information, to be able to identify, locate, evaluate, and effectively use that information for the issue or problem at hand."
National Forum on Information Literacy

• Information Literacy Weblog

• Open Directory Project

Society: Issues: Education: Literacy: Information Literacy

Reference: Libraries: Library and Information Science: User Services: Information Literacy

Artifacts and Politics: Technologies of the Self

The issues surrounding information and communication technologies can be considered objectively, in which quality is based on scientific measurement. However, since there are an infinite number of rational hypotheses that can be used to explain phenomena, an objective approach to solving information-related problems can not lead to absolute conclusions. An objective view cannot be regarded as a “synonym for ‘fair, unbiased, and good’” (Cox, 2004), because ethical definitions must be considered through the relative perspective of cultural contexts and social consequences.

Information technology can also be considered subjectively, based on individual opinion and experience. However, subjective views will be biased in favor of those who are unaffected by the digital divide. The context of ICT’s and information content cannot be thoroughly assessed until all people are empowered with equal access to ICT’s and information resources and are information literate. While experience-based examples can support the understanding of issues surrounding the creation and use of information, the bias inherent in subjective experience cannot be generally applied as evidence for absolute conclusions regarding information technology quality or the best practices for creating, sharing, and using information resources.

Furthermore, ITC can be evaluated from the perspective of inter-subjective reality (Cox, 2004), which emphasizes the role that culture and society play in determining what is best. In the book Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind, George Lakoff examines inter-subjectivity and validates the social construction of reality. Based on this view, cultural influences on the social construction of information technology and information use directly influence quality and practices. Ethical issues regarding the creation and use of information technology and information resources must be regarded through an inter-subjective lens before ethical principles can be broadly applied. In order to construct an ethical basis for quality practices regarding information communication technology and available information, technical considerations and individual experiences must be considered. However, a comprehensive ethical foundation for the creation, dissemination, and use of information cannot be established without regard for cultural influences and social consequences. An inter-subjective perspective in conjunction with objective and subjective consideration of ethical issues regarding ICT’s, information, and information literacy are needed before an information ethics can be effectively formulated and applied.

When making concrete decisions about information technology and use, a strong foundation in objective technical skills and subjective experience must be reconciled with cultural precedents, social interests, and the reality of unequal access to ICT resources. By evaluating information technology, sharing, and use from multiple perspectives, it is possible to resolve issues regarding productivity, accountability, availability, and quality regarding the creation and use of information in diverse formats.

Principles for evaluating information are reconciled when concrete decisions must be made. The social construction of technology plays a large part in how ethical considerations are applied to the practical use of ICT and information itself. The “production and circulation of meaning” (Lancaster, 2005) regarding information representations, informational texts, and electronic media are affected by the way social reality is constructed and the way ethical principles are applied. Interdependent social and cultural forces impact the way information technology is used, access and availability, and the criteria for assessing the merit and usefulness of all types of information.

The influence of moral systems and values on ICT’s, and the complementary influence of evolving ICT’s on those systems and values has created a need to establish a basis for information ethics and to study the ethical creation, distribution, and use of information presented in a variety of formats. Since valid arguments can be made for and against “oral, legal, or social issues involving cybertechnology” (Tavani, 2004), it is necessary to consider the social ramifications of ICT development in relation to a historical chronology of evolving information communication systems. ICT’s have a reciprocal relationship with social imperatives, in that each has been affected by and affects the other. In addition, progressive globalization and political maneuvers have influenced the construction of ICT’s and the reorganization of social systems.

The developmental relationship between society, information technology, and the Internet can be represented by the following timeline:

1982
The word “Internet” is used for the first time.
1984
Domain Name System (DNS) is established, with network addresses identified by extensions such as .com, .org, and .edu.
Writer William Gibson coins the term “cyberspace.”
1985
Quantum Computer Services, which later changes its name to America Online, debuts. It offers email, electronic bulletin boards, news, and other information.
1988
A virus called the Internet Worm temporarily shuts down about 10% of the world's Internet servers.
1989
The World (world.std.com) debuts as the first provider of dial-up Internet access for consumers.
Tim Berners-Lee of CERN (European Laboratory for Particle Physics) develops a new technique for distributing information on the Internet. He calls it the World Wide Web. The Web is based on hypertext, which permits the user to connect from one document to another at different sites on the Internet via hyperlinks (specially programmed words, phrases, buttons, or graphics). Unlike other Internet protocols, such as FTP and email, the Web is accessible through a graphical user interface.
1990
The first effort to index the Internet is created by Peter Deutsch at McGill University in Montreal, who devises Archie, an archive of FTP sites.
1991
Gopher, which provides point-and-click navigation, is created at the University of Minnesota and named after the school mascot. Gopher becomes the most popular interface for several years.
Another indexing system, WAIS (Wide Area Information Server), is developed by Brewster Kahle of Thinking Machines Corp.
1993
Mosaic is developed by Marc Andreeson at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). It becomes the dominant navigating system for the World Wide Web, which at this time accounts for merely 1% of all Internet traffic.
1994
The White House launches its website, www.whitehouse.gov.
Initial commerce sites are established and mass marketing campaigns are launched via email, introducing the term “spamming” to the Internet vocabulary.
Marc Andreessen and Jim Clark start Netscape Communications. They introduce the Navigator browser.
1995
CompuServe, America Online, and Prodigy start providing dial-up Internet access.
Sun Microsystems releases the Internet programming language called Java.
1996
Approximately 45 million people are using the Internet, with roughly 30 million of those in North America (United States and Canada), 9 million in Europe, and 6 million in Asia/Pacific (Australia, Japan, etc.). 43.2 million (44%) U.S. households own a personal computer, and 14 million of them are online.
1997
On July 8, 1997, Internet traffic records are broken as the NASA website broadcasts images taken by Pathfinder on Mars. The broadcast generates 46 million hits in one day.
1999
College student Shawn Fanning invents Napster, a computer application that allows users to swap music over the Internet.
The number of Internet users worldwide reaches 150 million by the beginning of 1999. More than 50% are from the United States.
“E-commerce” becomes the new buzzword as Internet shopping rapidly spreads.
2000
To the chagrin of the Internet population, deviant computer programmers begin designing and circulating viruses with greater frequency. “Love Bug” and “Stages” are two examples of self-replicating viruses that send themselves to people listed in a computer user's email address book. The heavy volume of email messages being sent and received forces many infected companies to temporarily shut down their clogged networks.
The Internet bubble bursts, as the fountain of investment capital dries up and the Nasdaq stock index plunges, causing the initial public offering (IPO) window to slam shut and many dotcoms to close their doors.
2001
Napster is dealt a potentially fatal blow when the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco rules that the company is violating copyright laws and orders it to stop distributing copyrighted music. The file-swapping company says it is developing a subscription-based service.
About 9.8 billion electronic messages are sent daily.
2002
As of January, 58.5% of the U.S. population (164.14 million people) uses the Internet. Worldwide there are 544.2 million users.
The death knell tolls for Napster after a bankruptcy judge ruled in September that German media giant Bertelsmann cannot buy the assets of troubled Napster Inc. The ruling prompts Konrad Hilbers, Napster CEO, to resign and lay off his staff.
2003
It's estimated that Internet users illegally download about 2.6 billion music files each month.
Spam, unsolicited email, becomes a server-clogging menace. It accounts for about half of all emails. In December, President Bush signs the Controlling the Assault of Non-Solicited Pornography and Marketing Act of 2003 (CAN-SPAM Act), which is intended to help individuals and businesses control the amount of unsolicited email they receive.
Apple Computer introduces Apple iTunes Music Store, which allows people to download songs for 99 cents each.
2004
Internet Worm, called MyDoom or Novarg, spreads through Internet servers. About 1 in 12 email messages are infected.
Online spending reaches a record high—$117 billion in 2004, a 26% increase over 2003.

“Sources for this timeline include International Data Corporation, the W3C Consortium, Nielsen/NetRatings, and the Internet Society” (Fact Monster/Information Please Database, 2005).

If “information technology has an ambiguous impact on society” (Capurro, 1996), then it is essential to examine the relationship between technology and society, and the manner in which that relationship affects how information is created, distributed, and used by individuals. The interaction between user and system influences effective navigation, just as the interaction between user and text affects comprehension. Difficulties related to navigating ICT systems affect access and retrieval, while difficulties in determining authenticity and credibility affect a user’s ability to evaluate information quality and usefulness. While information communication technology has increased individual and group access to information and expanded the possibilities of communication, the impact of the Internet and electronic information systems has resulted in a variety of ethical dilemmas. The way in which society accommodates “technological innovation” (Winner, 1986) determines how potential risks, consequences, and opportunities regarding the production, dissemination, exchange, and use of information and information communication technologies are regarded and how information-related issues are resolved.


References

Capurro, R. (1996). Information technology and technologies of the self. Journal of Information Ethics, 5, 19-28. Retrieved January 3, 2006, from http://www.capurro.de/self.htm

Cox, B. (2004). Social construction of reality. Retrieved January 18, 2006, from
http://virtualschool.edu/mon/SocialConstruction/#Sokal

Fact Monster/Information Please Database. (2005). Internet timeline. New York: Pearson Education. Retrieved January 20, 2006, from http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0193167.html

Friedman, T. (1993). Making sense of software. Retrieved January 19, 2006, from
http://virtualschool.edu/mon/SocialConstruction/MakingSenseOfSoftware.html

Jackman, L. & Weiner, S. (2006). National forum on information literacy. New York: Information Institute of Syracuse. Retrieved January 20, 2006, from http://www.infolit.org/

Lakoff, G. (1990). Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lancaster, R. (2005). Cultural studies. Retrieved January 18, 2006, from
http://culturalstudies.gmu.edu/

Tavani, H.T. (2004). Critical thinking skills and logical arguments: Tools for evaluating cyberethics issues. In Ethics and technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology (pp.65-86). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

Winner, L. (1986). Do artifacts have politics? In The whale and the reactor: A search for limits in an age of high technology (pp. 19-39). Chicago, University of Chicago Press. Retrieved December 15, 2005, from
http://www-personal.si.umich.edu/~rfrost/courses/Women+Tech/readings/Winner.html


Keys to Information Literacy

Intellectual Property

The definition of "piracy" is interesting. According to the American Heritage Dictionary, "piracy" has several distinct meanings:

pi·ra·cy Audio pronunciation of "piracy" ( P ) Pronunciation Key (pr-s)
n. pl. pi·ra·cies

1. a. Robbery committed at sea.
1. b. A similar act of robbery, as the hijacking of an airplane.
2. The unauthorized use or reproduction of copyrighted or patented material: software piracy.
3. The operation of an unlicensed, illegal radio or television station.

Source: The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition
Copyright © 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company.

Obviously, it is the second definition of piracy that applies to a discussion of information ethics. This definition invites the examination of terms used in the defining statement. For example, "unauthorized" is defined as:
unauthorized

adj 1: not endowed with authority [syn: unauthorised] [ant: authorized] 2: without official authorization; "an unauthorized strike"; "wildcat work stoppage" [syn: unauthorised, wildcat]

Clearly, in order to use information ethically, users need to know and understand the nature of authority, in cluding what constitutes authoritative rights, and who/what is endowed with recognized and appropriate authority to use information. Along with authority, questions of entitlement, rights, responsiblity, and obligation emerge.

The second definition of 'piracy" indicates that "use" and "reproduction" are equally susceptible to acts of piracy. However, the definition clearly states that this susceptibility is for materials that have existing copyrights or patents.

Does the existence of a copyright or patent function as a measure of authority? Without copyright or patent status, is information open to unlimited use or reproduction? If no copyright or patent exists, is the information "up for grabs", with no restraints. What are the potential consequences and results of limitless access to unregulated information products?

Information ethics certainly opens a Pandora's box of questions!!

The resolution of issues involving intellectual property rights vs. free and open access must be based on the ramifications of control vs. deregulation. Questions about individual rights and independence vs. accountability and socially-responsible obligation must be evaluated according to the implications and consequences of either stance. Taken to an extreme, either position can function as a deterrent to creative information production or the availability of accessible avenues for retrieving information.

• Electronic Frontier Foundation: Intellectual Property

• Anti-Piracy

What Is Plagiarism?

Understanding Copyrights

Defining Information Ethics for Today

Contextually, information ethics addresses issues related to rights, regulation, freedom and justice. Conceptually, information ethics is concerned with “the technology of privacy” (Pace, 2004), including “access, ownership… security and community” (Smith, 2001). Technology has facilitated a global information infrastructure, in which policies are grounded more in political expediency than in cultural imperatives. For example, “While librarians continue their struggle at USA Patriot Act defiance in order to protect patron privacy, software companies outside the library market are making millions off government-mandated compliance to all those other sections of the Patriot Act that deal with increased information-sharing and searching for terrorist funding” (Pace). Broadly conceived, information ethics lends itself to both moral and legal interpretations. In reality, the interpretation of information ethics can be conveniently construed to justify a variety of political agendas.

Existing ethical theories provide a framework for considering information access and use.
Applying Moor’s “just-consequentialist framework to cybertechnology” (Tavani, 2004) provides a strategy for developing impartial evaluation criteria to evaluate “ethical policies” (ibid.) and guide implementation of policies that address “specific cyberethics issues” (ibid.) and the effects of those policies on the creation, dissemination, and use of information in a variety of formats. If the global information infrastructure created by “computing and communication technologies” (ibid.) is to function cross-culturally, an objective framework for evaluating all types of information and information-related issues must be available. Since information is shared and has the power to influence, it is necessary to determine the ethical foundation for sharing information resources with others.

For librarians, information ethics is complicated tremendously by cybertechnology and the information resources available for serving patrons. “In the technical realm these days it seems like there are mutually exclusive battles between filtering and unfettered access, between anonymity and personalization, and between system flexibility and technical security against worms, spam, and pop-ups. The very security that protects us has the potential to work against us” (Pace, 2004). Intellectual property protection, copyright and plagiarism and “content-based regulation” (ACLU, 2004) are subject to “the special characteristics of communication in networks” (Johnson, 2004). Cybertechnology and network-based communication alter the dimensions of scope, anonymity, and reproducibility (ibid). Since secure communication can be jeopardized, individual rights can be compromised, information integrity can be threatened, and surveillance can be justified (ibid.). However, according to the ALA Code of Ethics “privacy and confidentiality with respect to information sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or transmitted” (ALA, 1995). To be effective, information ethics must accommodate “core values” (Moor, 2004) within “relative frameworks” (ibid.) that have the capacity to adjust to evolving technology and formats for sharing information. If libraries are to continue as advocates for intellectual freedom, then “materials should not be excluded because of the origin, background, or views of those contributing to their creation” (ALA, 1996) or because of the formats in which the information is presented. In order to be faithful to their purpose, libraries must continue to provide access to multiple perspectives, controversial view points, and the open communication of novel ideas.

The American Library Associations clearly interprets the “Library Bill of Rights” as a mandate to provide “access to electronic information, services, and networks” (ALA, 2005). According to this interpretation, “freedom of expression is an inalienable human right and the foundation for self-government. Freedom of expression encompasses the freedom of speech and the corollary right to receive information. Libraries and librarians protect and promote these rights by selecting, producing, providing access to, identifying, retrieving, organizing, providing instruction in the use of, and preserving recorded expression regardless of the format or technology” (ibid.). When “the ethical decision process” (Moor, 2004) is based on intellectual rights, “access to resources and services” (ALA, 2005) cannot be restricted on ethical grounds. Libraries are clearly directed to safeguard access to all types of information and to guard the privacy of users.

In conclusion, according to the American Library Association, libraries are obligated to protect intellectual freedom through written policies that address the access and use of information in all formats. Policy concerns related to “technology, the Internet, and telecommunications” (ALA 2005b) and the “USA Patriot Act of 2001” (ALA, 2006) have inspired ALA committee members to propose a resolution urging “the U.S. Congress to reauthorize a version of the USA Patriot Act (PL 107-56) that safeguards the privacy rights and constitutionally protected civil liberties of all library users and all citizens” (Romans, 2006). The content of the USA Patriot Act 2001 compromises individual privacy and jeopardizes the right to access information through unwarranted surveillance of users and interference with library policies. Without clearly defined and ethically-based criteria, regulation of information amounts to subversion of intellectual freedom and Constitutionally guaranteed rights. While cybertechnology has enabled global information sharing, the basis of information freedom in the U.S. should not be restructured to prevent potentially incriminating information exchange across cultures or within our existing culture on the basis of fickle political interpretations and agendas.



References

American Library Association. (2006). USA Patriot Act 2001. Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Retrieved January 13, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/washoff/WOissues/civilliberties/theusapatriotact/usapatriotact.htm

American Library Association. (2005a). Interpretations of the library bill of rights. Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Retrieved January 12, 2006, from
http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/statementsif/interpretations/Default675.htm

American Library Association. (2005b). Technology, the Internet, and telecommunications. Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Retrieved January 12, 2006, from
http://www.ala.org/ala/washoff/WOissues/techinttele/technologyinternet.htm

American Library Association. (1996). Library bill of rights. Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Retrieved January 12, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/statementspolicies.htm

American Library Association Council. (1995). Code of ethics of the American Library American Library Association. Chicago, IL: American Library Association. Retrieved January 12, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/codeofethics/codeethics.htm

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). (2004). Fahrenheit 451.2: Is cyberspace burning? How rating and blocking proposals may torch free speech on the Internet. In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (Eds.). Readings in cyberethics (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Johnson, D.G. (2004). Ethics on-line. In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (Eds.). Readings in cyberethics (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Moor, J.H. (2004). Reason, relativity, and responsibility in computer ethics. In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (Eds.). Readings in cyberethics (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Pace, A.K. (2004). The technology of patriotism. American Libraries, 35. Retrieved January 14, 2006 from http://www.ala.org/

Romans, L. (2006, January 12). Resolution on the USA Patriot Act Reauthorization—Draft,
Draft 6. Message posted to GOVDOC-L at http://govdoc-l.org/

Smith, M. (2001). Global information justice: Rights, responsibilities, and caring connections. Library Trends, 49, 519-536.

Tavani, H.T. (2004). Ethics & technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

"A Short Webliography on Computer Ethics for Philosophers"

Computer Ethics and Responsible Use

The issues related to control of information and information users' obligations to others are definitely matters of ethical debate. Based on diverse opinions and agendas surrounding perceived rights to information that is readily available in a burgeoning variety of formats and issues regarding perceived or actual invasion of identity and privacy, as well as where responsibility for creating, distributing, cataloging, and evaluating information lies, ethical questions regarding the nature of information and information resources are rife.

The issues must be carefully debated, with all possible opinions represented and considered, before the issues can be resolved based on general consensus, and before comprehensive regulatory measures can be enforced.
Concern about computer ethics is the result of the "information revolution" that has tranformed service delivery and culturally-constructed concepts and relationships. Thoughtful consideration of the issues related to information and communication technology, electronic information, and ethics is necessary before the conceptual basis of responsible computing can be determined. An argument for responsible computing can be made only after careful evaluation of pro and con postitions concerning cyberethics, information systems, and how information is provided and used.

In order to form educated opinions, it is essential to consider a multi-faceted subject from many points of view. The following resources offer diverse viewpoints on electronic information and cyberethics:

• Resources on Computing and Ethics

• Open Directory: Computers, Ethics

Information Ethics Defined

The subject of Information Ethics covers three broad categories:

1) Information technology development, including technological innovation and engineering professionalism, development and infrastructure processes, and the impact of IT on persons, organizations and global communication;

2) Access and education, including concerns about the implementation and integration of information and communications technology. The social impact of ICT must be responsibly evaluated in order to determine the effects on education, politics, economics and human rights. Bridging the digital divide and providing affordable and convenient access are primary concerns.

3) Legal and policy issues, including intellectual property and copyright, rights to privacy, protection, and freedom of speech and press, the role of surveillance and data mining, regulation and control, filtering, criminal activity, hacking, etc. influence how information is regarded and used.

The following recommended sites offer authoritative resources for considering the philosophical foundations of ethical electronic information creation, access, and use:

• A Short Webliography on Computer Ethics for Philosophers

• Resources on Computer and Ethics

Information Ethics Problems

Information Ethics

Electronic communication tools provide new avenues for sharing information with others. However, most still require the ability to read fluently, to comprehend what is read, and to write in ways that can be easily understood by others. Based on the format of websites, wikis, and blogs, the need to teach and learn reading and writing skills and strategies will continue to be a fundamental educational concern and priority! Information ethics is grounded in a presumption of educational ethics, in which children are taught to read, write, and think critically, to evaluate and analyze information, and to clearly articulate opinions based on substantive, direct evidence from relevant, reliable, and authoritative sources of information.

The social consequences of information creation and use are significant. Responsible retrieval is impacted by issues of accessiblity, authority, and confidentiality. In order to access and use information resources effectively, it is essential for users to understand the ethical principles that underlie the responsible creation and use of information, regardless of format or means of presentation. Such understanding is necessary to facilitate thoughtful selection of relevant and authoritative resources. Fundamental knowledge of ethical codes and concepts of intellectual freedom provide the criteria for critically evaluating the source and content of all kinds of information. By developing skills in comprehending and assessing information resources, users acquire the ability to articulate a rationale for information choices. Information literate users are those who can discriminate and differentiate among information that is valid and that which is less credible.