Critical Thinking

Critical Thinking and Technology

"Henry Smith married 150 women in the course of 10 years. He was never arrested for bigamy although each marriage was witnessed and recorded with the proper authorities. Why?"

"When you ask students to define "critical thinking," they will often refer to this type of puzzle or brainteaser. And although developing critical thinking skills will help students solve this puzzle, critical thinking skills will also help students as they face crucial decisions in education and in life. Students, and all of us, are bombarded with ideas and with people trying to persuade us to accept the ideas they are promoting. You only have to turn on a television talk show to see this in action. At least when watching a talk show, the viewer is given some background information about the speaker's credentials or lack of credentials and is usually aware of the personal bias that the speaker brings to the topic. The advent of the computer information age has presented us with a new challenge: a wealth of information distributed with few restrictions and often limited information about the author of the material. With the increasing use of web-based technology to gather and interpret information, teaching critical thinking skills to students is even more important."

Definition of Concept & Theory
What is critical thinking? There are a variety of answers to that question, but most experts agree that it includes the ability for a person to use his/her intelligence, knowledge and skills to question and carefully explore situations to arrive at thoughtful conclusions based on evidence and reason. A critical thinker is able to get past biases and view situations from different perspectives to ultimately improve his/her understanding of the world. In those two sentences lie a lifetime of work for an individual, work that begins with a formal education in critical thinking skills. A student once told me, "Whatever you teach me, what I believe is true." This is the crux of teaching critical thinking. It cannot be taught as an absolute. There are no formulas to memorize or tests to take. Teaching critical thinking is about helping students discover the answers. That said, there are some basic tools that you can use to begin to teach critical thinking to students.

John Chaffee in The Thinker's Guide to College Success defines thinking critically as "carefully examining our thinking (and the thinking of others) in order to clarify and improve our understanding." He suggests providing students with practice and guidance in the five activities listed below:

* Thinking Actively by using our intelligence, knowledge, and skills to question, explore, and deal effectively with ourselves, others, and life's situations.
* Carefully Exploring Situations by asking--and trying to answer--relevant questions.
* Thinking for Ourselves by carefully examining various ideas and arriving at our own thoughtful conclusions.
* Viewing Situations from Different Perspectives to develop an in-depth, comprehensive understanding.
* Supporting Diverse Perspectives with Reason and Evidence to arrive at thoughtful, well-substantiated conclusions.

"Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action. In its exemplary form, it is based on universal intellectual values that transcend subject matter divisions: clarity, accuracy, precision, consistency, relevance, sound evidence, good reasons, depth, breadth, and fairness.
It entails the examination of those structures or elements of thought implicit in all reasoning: purpose, problem, or question-at-issue; assumptions; concepts; empirical grounding; reasoning leading to conclusions; implications and consequences; objections from alternative viewpoints; and frame of reference. Critical thinking - in being responsive to variable subject matter, issues, and purposes - is incorporated in a family of interwoven modes of thinking, among them: scientific thinking, mathematical thinking, historical thinking, anthropological thinking, economic thinking, moral thinking, and philosophical thinking.

Critical thinking can be seen as having two components: 1) a set of information and belief generating and processing skills, and 2) the habit, based on intellectual commitment, of using those skills to guide behavior. It is thus to be contrasted with: 1) the mere acquisition and retention of information alone, because it involves a particular way in which information is sought and treated; 2) the mere possession of a set of skills, because it involves the continual use of them; and 3) the mere use of those skills ("as an exercise") without acceptance of their results.

Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When grounded in selfish motives, it is often manifested in the skillful manipulation of ideas in service of one's own, or one's groups', vested interest. As such it is typically intellectually flawed, however pragmatically successful it might be. When grounded in fairmindedness and intellectual integrity, it is typically of a higher order intellectually, though subject to the charge of "idealism" by those habituated to its selfish use.

Critical thinking of any kind is never universal in any individual; everyone is subject to episodes of undisciplined or irrational thought. Its quality is therefore typically a matter of degree and dependent on , among other things, the quality and depth of experience in a given domain of thinking or with respect to a particular class of questions. No one is a critical thinker through-and-through, but only to such-and-such a degree, with such-and-such insights and blind spots, subject to such-and-such tendencies towards self-delusion. For this reason, the development of critical thinking skills and dispositions is a life-long endeavor."

(A statement by Michael Scriven & Richard Paul for the National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking Instruction)

Teaching and Learning on the Web

Envisioning, Planning, and Identifying Resources

Issues in the Web Environment
href="http://college.hmco.com/instructors/ins_teachtech_foundations_facguide.html">
Faculty Guide to Teaching and Learning on the Web

League for Innovation

Research Online: A Practical Guide

Kathy Schrock's Guide for Educators: Subject Access: Literature and Language Arts

Evaluating Information

Evaluating Information on the Web: "The World Wide Web is a great tool for exploring all kinds of information. While it is useful to have access to so much diverse and uncensored material, it is important to remember that internet browsers and search engines do NOT discern between valid, useful information and the inaccurate, useless stuff. Even the most diligent web surfers can sometimes forget that much of what is on the web is not only irrelevant or misleading, but often false. To be a savvy researcher you must think critically about what you find. This tutorial will guide you through five points to help you evaluate the quality of information on the web."

There are five points to consider when evaluating information you find on the web: Authority, Accuracy, Objectivity, Currency, and Coverage.

Evaluating Web Pages: Techniques to Apply and Questions to Ask

Evaluating Information Found on the Internet

Evaluating the Quality of Information on the Internet

Searching for and Evaluating Information on the Web

Critical Evaluation of Resources

Critically Analyzing Information Resources

Search Engine Tutorials

Search Engine Watch

Search Engine Showdown: The User's Guide to Web Searching

Librarian's Internet Index

Web Site Evaluation

Five Criteria for Evaluating Web Pages


Is This a Scholarly Publication?

Remember: "Although the Web contains vast amounts of information, always remember that there are other sources of information out there. There is still valuable information that may only be found in books or journal articles that are not found on the web... With the Internet there is no evaluation of the information before it gets into your hands: anyone with a computer and connection to the Internet could in theory put up whatever information they want (very little regulation of the Internet is in place).
It is therefore even more important for you to think critically and evaluate the information you find on the Web."

Creative Learning

"It is important that students bring a certain ragamuffin barefoot irreverence to their studies; they are not here to worship what is known, but to question it."
Jacob Bronowski

Warrior Librarian

Things to Know About the Internet
Cool Links

Creating Resources

"The mark of a well educated person is not necessarily knowing all the answers, but in knowing where to find them."
Douglas Everett

A WebQuest About School Library Web Sites

Deb Logan's Home on the Web

Linworth Publishing

School Library Impact Studies

The Wide Window: A Blog for School and Youth Services Librarians

The School Library Media Specialist

Proof of the Power:
Quality Library Media Programs Affect Academic Achievement, by Keith Curry Lance

Sharing Resources

Websites and Blogs are becoming outstanding resources for sharing information resources.

Joyce Valenza's NeverEnding Search
Alice Yucht'sAlice in InfoLand
Jacquie Henry'sWanderings
Sara Kelly Johns' From the Inside Out
Michael Stephen's Tame the Web
David Warlick's 2 Cents Worth

The Kept-Up Academic Librarian
Kathy Schrock's KaffeKlatsch
Kathy Schrock's Homepage

Kathy Schrock's Guide for Educators

School-Libraries.Org: Online Resources for School Librarians-- Information Literacy and LIbrary Skills Resources

Resources for School Librarians

Sites 2 Good 2 Pass Up 4 Librarians

ISAL LInks to School Library Resources
Information Literacy: An Overview of Design, Process, and Outcomes
Information Literacy: The Building Blocks of Research
Developing Competencies in Information Literacy
Information Literacy: WikEd
Information Literacy

Information Literacy
21st Century Skills: Information Literacy
Information Skills
Information and Digital Literacy Portfolio: Webliography

Information Literacy
The Internet Public Library

Peter Milbury's Network of School Librarian Web Pages

K-12 Information Literacy in the Digital Age Resource List
Info Literacy Models
21st Century Literacies
Debra W. Waugh Instructional Technology Portfolio

How to Do Research
School Library Journal
Booklist Online
Book Links

NoodleTools: Smart Tools. Smart Research.
"NoodleTools is a suite of interactive tools designed to aid students and professionals with their online research. From selecting a search engine and finding some relevant sources, to citing those sources in MLA or APA style, NoodleTools makes online research easier!"

Curriculum Collaboration Toolkit: "Effective teaching with technology matches the teacher's goals and the learner's characteristics and needs, with tools that enhance understanding."

Librarians' Internet Index: Websites You Can Trust

Self-expression

The creative and educational potential of blogs and blogging is impressive.
In addition to being a high school library media specialist, I am also a secondary English teacher and reading specialist. During the second semester (after beginning a blog for this course), I decided to incorporate individual blogs into my instruction for struggling high school readers.
Creating blogs, responding to writing prompts, and composing responses to each others' blog postings has provided an engaging medium for supporting meaningful instruction and practice. The students are not only invested in their blogs, they are also actively involved in reading and writing processes.
Incorporating blogs into my instructional strategies has provided exciting possibilities for engaging students, while improving their basic skills and expanding their understanding of the communication process and the use of technology for communicating ideas.

The Information Process

Characteristics of the Information Process

Those who teach students how to use this process will note the following characteristics...

1. It is a process, with several concurrent, interactive operations. Each part of the process builds on a previous part, laying the groundwork for the next part. It is structured and learning is active but not chaotic.

2. The process is developmental. Students need many opportunities to develop their skills and strategies, beginning in the primary grades and continuing throughout their years in school.

3. The process is pervasive, touching on all aspects of the teaching and learning environment. It crosses all grade levels, all subjects, and all students, regardless of socio-economic or geographic factors.

4. The process is dynamic. Students are actively engaged in their own learning; they are not passive observers. It is vigorous and generates an energy that has great appeal for learners of all ages. This active (but structured) learning also demands accountability.

5. The process has a metacognitive component. Students are taught to become reflective and aware of their own learning (what they are doing, where they are going next...). Teachers use this aspect to assess their students' progress and to gauge their ability to activate the information process effectively.

6. It is inclusive of other learning processes. The information process, like any other learning process does not happen in isolation from others. It includes all the language arts strands as well as the scientific processes of experimenting, testing hypotheses, problem-solving, critical and creative thinking (cognition.) Along with the newer "literacy skills" related to media and technology, students still need some of the more traditional competencies related to library and research skills. The ability to evaluate information, including but not exclusively data and information from electronic sources.

For more information about the importance of providing our students with a process approachor a framework for information processing, visit one of these websites to read more: from researchers Carol Kulthau and others; and Johnson & Eisenberg, the creators of The Big 6 approach. Remember, the number of stages in the process may be debatable... Big 6 proponents claim there are six, while the model used in Atlantic Canada has seven, the importance of organizing the various skills and strategies in the process into identifiable stages or phases is absolutely essential for effective learning!

Bix6 Matrix: Applying Big6™ Skills, Information Literacy Standards and ISTE NETS to Internet Research
by Janet Murray

Learning in an Information Society

Students in this "Information (or Knowledge) -Based Society," are expected to take greater responsibility for their own learning and academic progress. Resource-based learning places the student in the center of their learning environment with a wide range of enriching experiences during their formative years.

Resource-based learning is not optional for teacher-librarians; it is their pervasive instructional approach.

Teacher-librarians are information specialists, knowledgeable about learning resources in all formats and resource-based learning processes.

"The current emphasis on information literacy and its manifestation, resource-based learning, makes research an essential part of a school curriculum and life-long learning. Students have much to gain when they experience a consistent approach to the research (or information) process, beginning in the early primary grades and continuing throughout their school years. Where teacher-librarians are part of the instructional team, they can provide co-ordination and support to teachers as (together) they develop a school-wide plan for teaching information literacy skills and strategies, as well as a plan for instruction. This approach will be activated for a variety of projects, including those which make use of technology, in order to access, use, create and share information."
(Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum, Entry-3, page 221)

Technological Competencies

"Teacher-librarians provide support for teachers and students in the use of technology related to Information Literacy."

All about Blogs

YALSA Blog

Meet Me on the ‘Net: Teens and eCommunication Ethical Considerations

Love of Reading

"Teacher-librarians play an important role in fostering a love for reading."

Building Information Literacy

Information Literacy and Learning

School Libraries for Lifelong Learning

"Teacher-librarians are the key personnel in the implementation of resource-based learning programs."

Information Literacy is implemented successfully in schools that " -recognize the partnership of principal, teacher, and teacher-librarian, - insist on flexible scheduling to help in the implementation of the school library program, -are involved in collaboration and team teaching, -acknowledge that processing and use of information is a school wide concern,and finally, - teacher-librarians take the initiative and place priority on Cooperative Program Planning and Teaching (CPPT)."

November Learning: Information Literacy Resources

"How many versions of the truth are you looking for? Too often students accept information that looks authentic as the truth and this is one of the dangers of Web site information. Since ANYONE can publish on the Internet, learning how to validate information is an important skill." --Alan November

Information Process Skills

Teacher Librarians and Policies

Blog Posting 5
Information Professionals and Public Policy Issues

Access, Ownership, Privacy, Security, and Community


Part 1: The Role of the Professional

Information ethics applies ethical principles within the context of information provision, control, and use. By providing a critical framework for considering issues related to information creation, ownership, acquisition, access, and retrieval, information ethics establishes criteria for evaluating policies and decisions regarding information products, delivery, and systems.

Dilemmas regarding information management are increasingly prevalent in a society that is substantially focused on shared knowledge. Information transmission and literacy are essential concerns in establishing an ethical foundation that promotes fair, equitable, and responsible practices. Information ethics broadly examines issues related to ownership, access, privacy, security, and community (Elrod & Smith). Information technology affects fundamental rights involving copyright protection, intellectual freedom, accountability, and security.

While professional codes offer a basis for making ethical decisions and applying ethical solutions to situations involving information provision and use, which reflect an organization’s commitment to responsible information service, evolving information formats and needs require continual reconsideration of ethical principles and how codes are applied. Considerations regarding information ethics influence “personal decisions, professional practice, and public policy” (Elrod & Smith, p. 1010). Therefore, ethical analysis must take into consideration “many, diverse domains” (ibid.) regarding how information is distributed, maintained, evaluated, and used in an information-dependent society.

The instructional role of school librarians supports the development of life-long learners. Being responsible for information literacy instruction (ACRL, 2001), teacher-librarians recognize that “Information literacy encompasses more than good information-seeking behavior” (ibid.). A collaborative approach to information literacy incorporates instruction based on evaluative criteria and critical thinking into meaningful content-based research activities. By encouraging constructive, elf-directed and responsible investigations based on the retrieval and use of information resources in a variety of formats, teacher-librarians help students “assume greater control over their learning” (ibid.), while supporting the development metacognitive strategies related to “the explicit actions required for gathering, analyzing, and using information” (ibid.) responsibly.

Information literacy mitigates “the social impact of information technology” (Capurro, 1996), because information literate users are able to critically evaluate information resources, deliberately engage in responsible retrieval, and actively construct understanding based on competent research skills. As information literacy instructors, school librarians directly support an inquiry-based approach to learning that empowers students to become responsive and socially-responsible learners who know how to create, access, retrieve, and use information to enhance their experience, extend their knowledge, and improve life for themselves and others. Teacher-librarians also model the best information practices, explain the principles of intellectual freedom, and inform students about their rights to access and privacy while identifying the differences between public and school policies.

School librarians have an ethical responsibility to take their instructional role as informational professionals seriously, by actively collaborating with other educational professionals to create an information-rich environment that supports the development of information literacy. School librarians are also responsible for openly encouraging content-based interdisciplinary collaboration that presents opportunities for students to practice information retrieval and use.



Part 2: The Role of Associations

Professional library-information associations such as ALA, AASL, and ACRL are obligated to ensure that the benefits of information technologies are not only distributed equitably, but that they can also be used by people to shape their own lives” (Capurro, 1996). Information literacy skills help bridge the “digital divide” and support ethical access by enabling individuals to become independent learners and responsible users of information systems and resources. Regarding issues of public policy, professional library-information associations are dedicated to upholding socially-responsible ethical codes that support equitable access and intellectual freedom.

By addressing authentic ethical responsibilities to information users, professional library-information associations empower individuals to become information literate, discriminating users, who can recognize ”biased knowledge” (Capurro, 1996) and relevancy. When professional ethical codes address and promote the development of information literacy skills in addition to issues regarding the storage, retrieval, and management of information (ibid.), the codes support the development of mastery by assuming that library-information professionals have obligations that involve more that simply supportive functions. For example, “education and lifelong learning” (ALA, 2005), and “broad social responsibilities” (ibid.) are included in the Core Values of Librarianship.

Through helping information users learn to create and choose reality (Capurro, 1996), based on selected information, library-information professionals create the framework of a shared paradigm through which social values can be defined and debated. When professional library-information codes take into account “the individuality and contextuality of problems and needs” (ibid.), then “the practices of information become part of the practices of deliberation, advising, and dissenting” (ibid.) that support individual inquiry and critical reflection.

If professional codes encourage library-information professionals to apply the principles of information ethics to their professional practice and interaction with information users, then the codes will support the instructional role of library-information professionals, who will be responsible for providing accessible information, promoting responsible retrieval and use of information, as well as developing the critical thinking skills associated with information literacy intellectual freedom. The most effective and ethically compelling professional
library-information codes will be those that “take care of the intersections” (ibid.) between ethical practice, ethical provision, and ethical instruction that are part of a unified framework deliberately designed and intended to support information users.



INFORMATION ETHICS:
Information Professionals + Information Instruction = Information Literacy

Information Ethics, Professional Role of Teacher-Librarians, and Information Literacy Instruction


References

ACM Council. (1992). ACM Code of ethics and professional conduct. In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (Eds.), Readings in Cyberethics (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

American Association of School Librarians. (2005). Information literacy. Retrieved February 26, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/aasl/aaslissues/aaslinfolit/informationliteracy1.htm

American Association of School Librarians. (2006). AASL resource guides for school library media program development: Student achievement. Retrieved February 16, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/aaslTemplate.cfm?Section=resourceguides&Template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=14760

American Association of School Librarians. (2006). Resource guides for school library media program development: Information literacy. Retrieved February 16, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/aaslTemplate.cfm?Section=resourceguides&Template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=15288

American Association of School Librarians. (2006). Resource guides for school library media program development: Standards and guidelines. Retrieved February 16, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/aaslTemplate.cfm?Section=resourceguides&Template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=15419

American Library Association. (1953). Freedom to read statement. ALA Council and AAP Freedom to Read Committee. Chicago. IL: ALA. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/ftrstatement/freedomreadstatement.htm

American Library Association. (1990). Freedom to view statement. ALA Council. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/ftvstatement/freedomviewstatement.htm

American Library Association. (1995). Code of ethics of the American Library Association. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 8, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/codeofethics/codeethics.htm

American Library Association. (1999). Libraries: An American value. Chicago, IL: ALA Council. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/americanvalue/librariesamerican.htm

American Library Association. (2004). Core values of librarianship. ALA Council. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 8, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/corevaluesstatement/corevalues.htm
American Library Association. (2005). ALA policy manual. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/ourassociation/governingdocs/policymanual/policymanual.htm

American Library Association. (2005). Intellectual freedom and policy statements. Office for Intellectual Freedom. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 8, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/statementspolicies.htm

American Library Association. (2005). Our Association. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/ourassociation/Default262.htm

American Library Association and the Association for Educational Technology and Communication. (1998). Information literacy standards for student learning: Standards and indicators. Retrieved February 16, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/aasl/aaslproftools/informationpower/InformationLiteracyStandards_final.pdf

Association for Computing Machinery. (1992). ACM code of ethics. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.acm.org/constitution/code.html

Association of College and Research Libraries. (2001). Objectives for information literacy instruction: A model statement for academic librarians. Retrieved February 18, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/objectivesinformation.htm

Association of College and Research Libraries. (2003). Characteristics of programs of information literacy that illustrate best practices: A guideline. Retrieved February 18, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/characteristics.htm

Association of College and Research Libraries. (2005). Standards and guidelines. Retrieved February 18, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/acrl/acrlstandards/standardsguidelines.htm

Buchanan, E.A. (2003). Ethical considerations for the information professions.
In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (Eds.), Readings in Cyberethics, (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Capurro, R. (1996). Information technologies and technologies of the self. Journal of Information Ethics, 5 (2), 19-28. Retrieved February 18, 2006, from http://www.capurro.de/self.htm

Elrod, E. & Smith, M. (2005). Information ethics. In C. Mitcham (Ed.), Encyclopedia of science, technology, and ethics ( Vol. 2, pp. 1004-1011). Detroit: Macmillan Reference.

Simpson, C. (Ed.). (2003). Ethics in school librarianship: A reader.
Worthington, OH: Linworth.

Tavani, H.T. (2004). Ethics & technology: Ethical issues in an age of information
and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

Tavani, H.T. (2005). Student companion site: Ethics & technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://bcs.wiley.com/he- bcs/Books?action=index&itemId=0471249661&bcsId=1604

Blog Design

Tending to share a similar presentation layout, blogs can be redesigned to improve ease-of-use and readability.
Maintaining a blog can be time-consumming. Therefore, it makes sense to use a functional design that is easy to maintain.

Using a design strategy that reinforces a customized perception of the blog and what the blog represents will help "brand" the blog in the users' minds, and connect the blog to its purpose. If the blog represents an organization, the design should reflect that entity, either through use of a particular color scheme, images, voice, topic, etc. The blog design should ideally present the image of an individual or organization in a manner that is professional, stylish, characteristic, and appropriate to the blog's purpose.

By incorporatiung standardized development techniques into blog design, the blog becomes a unique online "presence" that is familiar to the users, easily recognized, visually inviting, and user-friendly. Blog design is most effective when the blog is perceived as consistent, purposeful, and connected to a topic, voice, or organization.

Enforcing Ethical Codes

Value-based professional codes are difficult to enforce when the code is frequently revised to reflect changing social and professional values.

Professional codes are effective in encouraging or enforcing ethical behavior if members support initiatives that reflect the codes. Codes are generally based on ethical guidelines, with a moral foundation. Since the codes are not legally-binding, they are difficult to enforce. Members are expected to follow an organization's codes, but cannot be forced. Professional codes typically represent an organization, and members presumably agree with the underlying values presented by the codes.

If a group is to be regarded as professionals, it is essential for members of the group to behave in ways that represent the values of the profession. Active dialogue and reflection among group members is necessary in order to establish the values of the profession, especially in relation to social and cultural development. Participation in group forums is an ideal way for members to communicate with other members of the group, discuss value-based issues, establish consensus, debate criteria, create a professional identity based on recognized standards and shared values. Ethical codes provide members with an established framework for making difficult ethical and professional decisions.

While ethical codes cannot be legally enforced, they can be used to defend the actions and behavior of group members who conscientiously practice in accord with the accepted codes. Professional codes indicate the types of behavior that professionals should exhibit, as a reflection of the underlying values that the group considers to be professionally appropriate.

However, some issues cannot be handled in the context of the code. Professional codes could conflict with changing laws (i.e., the Patriot Act).
Additionally, conflicts may be associated with codes. For example, "there can be conflict between two codes, between the professionl's personal values and code requirements, between the code and ordinary morality, between the code and institutional practice, and between requirements within a single code".
(http://soeweb.syr.edu/CHS/OnlineField/Ethics/Codes.htm)
Finally, a limited range of topics is covered in an ethical code. Since "a code approach is usually reactive to issues already developed elsewhere, the consensus requirement prevents the code from addressing new issues and problems on the cutting edge" (ibid.).
While initiatives like those related to the ALA's
"Intellectual Freedom Statements and Policies"
http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/statementspolicies.htm
can be responsive to current political and social developments, ethical codes are more applicable in defining a professional attitude or way of responding to situations and making value-based decisions.

"The New Plagiarism: Seven Antidotes to Prevent Highway Robbery in an Information Age" by Jamie McKenzie

Applied Ethics

Information ethics applies ethical principles within the context of information provision, control, and use. By providing a critical framework for considering issues related to information creation, ownership, acquisition, access, and retrieval, information ethics establishes criteria for evaluating policies and decisions regarding information products, delivery, and systems.

Dilemmas regarding information management are increasingly prevalent in a society that is increasingly focused on shared knowledge. Information transmission and literacy are essential concerns in establishing an ethical foundation that promotes fair, equitable, and responsible practices. Information ethics broadly examines issues related to ownership, access, privacy, security, and community (Elrod & Smith). Information technology affects fundamental rights involving copyright protection, intellectual freedom, accountability, and security.

While professional codes offer a basis for making ethical decisions and applying ethical solutions to situations involving information provision and use, which reflect an organization’s commitment to responsible information service, evolving information formats and needs require continual reconsideration of ethical principles and how codes are applied. Considerations regarding information ethics influence “personal decisions, professional practice, and public policy” (Elrod & Smith, p. 1010). Therefore, ethical analysis must take into consideration “many, diverse domains” (ibid.) regarding how information is distributed, maintained, evaluated, and used in an information-dependent society.


EDWIN ELROD and MARTHA SMITH. Encyclopedia of Science, Technology, and Ethics. Ed. Carl Mitcham. Vol. 2: D-K. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. p1004-1011. 4 vols.

Constructive Practice

The format of "Information Ethics" offers opportunities to engage in constructive, collaborative learning through the ACTIVE development of focus within communities of practice via the responsive blog postings and group blog exchanges. The social construction of knowledge empowers students as they consider the readings and opinions of other students in light of their own thoughts concerning ethical issues.

The format of this course reinforces practice in the use of social technologies within learning communities that not only allow the back & forth discourse, but also those tech media that more intentionally develop common understandings.
Class members have been encouraged to compare the wiki format with the listserv model of exchange and interaction with others. Unlike the listserve, each successive iteration of the community wiki is the result of some collaborative effort. However, the listserv is only as good as the current messages coming into the "inbox". I would be interested in whether or not a class wiki would encourage more focused and genuinely interactive collaboration among class members.

The structure and limitations of the listserv format as a learning technology and the operational groundrules themselves of many listserv forums or group blog rings are - in my opinion - insufficient to consistently and/or systematically arrive at socially constructed truths concerning a topic or issue. Still, within the online learning environment, the group blog rings serve as a social forum for facilitating discussion and exchange in a learning community.

In order to create an "optimal learning community" the listserv mechanism must be actively dedicated to the systematic, progressive development of shared understanding and knowledge based on the establishment of an interconnected learning system that uses selected information like the course readings and identified goals as the basis for creating a committed community of practice.

Even with the ability to respond within the context of what the other person said previously (e.g. by copying & pasting, replying by commenting within or below the previous email/listserv message text itself) the words - themselves - are the metaphors we each abide by within this learning community. And the words fly back and forth without any electronic representation that lasts as a monument to the reflected understanding of our community. For example, there could be more opportunities for collaboration on a product, like the development of the Wikipedia entry.

In order for group blog rings more effective, it may be helpful to define the parameters and purpose of our conversation. However, there are limitations in the context of distance learning, due to different levels of participation. When class members are actively committed to participation, it is possible to engage in some interesting, fruitful, and thought-provoking dialogue as a result of the replies and interactions.

What can be more wonderful for a student than to be able to process a number of different arguments and opinions and produce an opinion of his/her own? As we definitively construct our understanding of "information ethics" and conceptualize issues based on ethical considerations, we engage in the social construction of learning within the parameters of the course.

The structure of "Information Ethics" encourages independent thinking as well as group processing, in which the instructor serves as a moderator and a facilitator of learning. By working in groups, reflecting on the readings, and creating E-pathfinders, students have an opportunitiy to process information constructively and to develop a foundation for their own thinking about issues related to the ethical provision and use of information in a variety of formats.

Through the formative experience of courses like "Information Ethics", students participate in the process of systematically developing and articulating an informed and well-considered professional values.

Current Relevance

"There are several current public policies that are implied in the American Library Association’s code of ethics such as education and civil liberties. ALA is committed to providing equal access to all users and in supporting the rights of the patrons. The freedom of information and protection of patron privacy is a fact that members of the community look to in a library and it should be protected in the association."

The fact that provisions in the ALA Code of Ethics implicitly address issues of current relevance related to freedom of access and intellectual freedom, is a primary reason for the ALA's intense focus on public policies that may jeopardize the very principles that the association is committed to upholding. The association's stated mission, policies, and code of ethics all affirm the resolve of the association's members to protect the Constitutional and civil rights of library-information patrons. This resolve is reflected in the fierce stance the ALA has assummed in opposition of the Patriot Act and its renewal.

ALA & First Amendment

Since the First Amendment
is the foundation for the ALA's position and policies regarding intellectual freedom,

http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/basics/Default2272.htm

http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/statementspolicies.htm

with "intellectual freedom" also addressed in the second provision of the ALA "Code of Ethics"--

"We uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources"--

http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/codeofethics/codeethics.htm

it seems that the ALA code is directed at a distinctly "American" (meaning U.S.) audience. Representing both a profession and individual members, the ALA code provides a model for the library-information profession, but that model does seem to specifically apply to the cultural and social context that had been shaped by a national perspective-- a perspective that may be grounded in the larger Western European tradition, but which is certainly not universal.

After all, the ALA is the "American Library Association"-- not the "International" or the "United Nations" library association.

An ethical model for reevaluating profesionalism

By regularly examining association memberships and organizational affiliations in view of ethical principles, it is possible to redetermine the fit between an association's mission and codes and those of the individual member.

Ethical models facilitate comparison among standards, and help determine the criteria for affiliation and establish whether a member's values are aligned with an organization's policies.

By "thinking like a professional" it is possible to analyze and compare the "imperatives" or provisions of one association's ethical code with another's, with different ethical models, or with an individual's value system.

An organization's focus and initiatives are shaped by established policies and codes. If a professional is a member of professional associations, it is essential to assess whether or not professional standards are represented and how these standards influence and/or one's professional views and position.

If professional codes are intended to guide decision-making based on professional values, then membership in an association should be perceived as a source of moral support and reaffirmation.

Professional Codes: Traditions and Guidance for the Future

The library-information profession is informed by core values that address the delivery of information services. The “Code of Ethics of the American Library Association” is intended to guide ethical decision-making based on value-based professional criteria. An explicit commitment to the principles of intellectual freedom and unrestricted access to information inform this “rights-based” (Tavani, 2004, p. 54) ethical code.

The ALA “Code of Ethics” relies on Constitutional imperatives identified in the First Amendment, which established the rights of free speech and freedom of the press in the U.S. The “selection, organization, preservation, and dissemination of information” (ALA) should be based on the freedom to read, view, and access information. Legal and ethical principles are the foundation for the public’s right to access and use information resources, and for the professional role in defending this right as a public good and an instrumental value, based on the perspectives of act utilitarianism (Tavani, 2004, p. 47) and rule deontology (Tavani, 2004, p. 58).

Duty-based (Deontology) Stresses the role of duty and respect for persons Underestimates the importance of happiness and social utility

Based on the “Code of Ethics of the American Library Association”, ALA members are obligated “to ensure the free flow of information and ideas to present and future generations” (ALA). The code explicitly states that the broadly-based ethical “framework” (ALA) is intended to guide library-information professionals, but not “to cover particular situations” (ibid.) Being composed of general principles, the code indirectly addresses utilitarian concerns or social consequences.

The “Code of Ethics”, is a rights-based contract, reinforcing principles of “negative rights” (Tavani, 2004, p. 55) that prevent interference with the privileges of others. While the first provision provides for “equitable access”, the second provision upholds the principle of “intellectual freedom”, and the third provision of the ALA Code mandates the utilitarian protection of “each library user's right to privacy and confidentiality with respect to information sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or transmitted” (ALA), the directives do not address the consequences that may result from accessing, disseminating, or using anti-social information. Statement III of the ALA Code relies on social policies based on core values in U.S. society. However, this mandate is controversial because it defends “positive rights” (Tavani, 2004, p. 55) without qualification within the context of evolving information formats and delivery.

Contract-based (Rights) Provides a motivation for morality Offers only a minimal morality
Consequence-based (Utilitarian) Stresses promotion of happiness and utility Ignores concerns of justice
for the minority population

Statement IV states that library-information professionals will “recognize and respect intellectual property rights” (ALA) as a categorical imperative based on the perspective of rule deontology. It is the duty of library-information professionals to uphold copyright laws.

Furthermore, statements I, V, VI,VII, and VIII of the ALA Code rely on “social contracts” (Tavani, 2004, p. 53) and “character-based ethics” (Tavani, 2004, p. 55) to provide “unbiased responses and to “safeguard the rights and welfare” (ALA) of library-information professionals and employees. These directives are “agent-oriented” (Tavani, 2004, p. 56) and focused on utilitarian acts and moral behavior toward library-information patrons and colleagues working in library-information environments.

Duty-based (Deontology) Stresses the role of duty and respect for persons Underestimates the importance of happiness and social utility
Character-based (Virtue) Stresses moral development and moral education Depends on homogeneous community standards for morality

The ALA Code is intended to guide individual members concerning “their ethical responsibilities” (Tavani, 2004, p. 93), inform ALA policies, and generally define the library-information profession for the public. The ALA Code relies primarily on “character-based ethical theories” (Tavani, 2004, p. 55), making the most of the eight provisions contingent on “virtue ethics” (ibid.) that are difficult to apply and enforce. The ALA is organizationally based on willing membership, and does not focus efforts on enforcing its provisions in its membership, but concentrates on upholding core professional values, social responsibilities, and principles established in the organization’s code.

The ALA Code is based on ethical principles inherent in U.S. society, and reflects the library-information profession in relation to the legal and moral principles valued in the U.S. Based on those principles, the ALA Code presents a morally-responsive view of the profession that has national and international significance. Based on principles within the U.S. Constitution, the ALA Code of Ethics directly addresses Constitutional rights as well as current public policy issues related to equitable access, intellectual property, and intellectual freedom. By implication, provisions within the ALA Code also address the digital divide, electronic surveillance, filtering, and privacy.

In conclusion, the ALA Code relies on encompassing provisions to broadly define the ethical foundation and guiding principles of the ALA mission, policies, and ALA members. By integrating aspects of various ethical theories into a comprehensive ethical code, the ALA establishes a viable framework for making and applying ethical decisions related to library-information services. The “Code of Ethics of the American Library Association” is a guide for taking action and resolving dilemmas within the library information profession, based on provisions that support ethical decision-making on the basis of rules, obligations, contracts, consequences, and character.


“Code of Ethics of the American Library Association”
I. We provide the highest level of service to all library users through appropriate and usefully organized resources; equitable service policies; equitable access; and accurate, unbiased, and courteous responses to all requests.
II. We uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources.
III. We protect each library user's right to privacy and confidentiality with respect to information sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or transmitted.
IV. We recognize and respect intellectual property rights.
V. We treat co-workers and other colleagues with respect, fairness and good faith, and advocate conditions of employment that safeguard the rights and welfare of all employees of our institutions.
VI. We do not advance private interests at the expense of library users, colleagues, or our employing institutions.
VII. We distinguish between our personal convictions and professional duties and do not allow our personal beliefs to interfere with fair representation of the aims of our institutions or the provision of access to their information resources.
VIII. We strive for excellence in the profession by maintaining and enhancing our own knowledge and skills, by encouraging the professional development of co-workers, and by fostering the aspirations of potential members of the profession.
Application of Ethical Theories, Principles, & Models in the ALA Code
Utilitarianism
We strive for excellence in the profession by maintaining and enhancing our own knowledge and skills, by encouraging the professional development of co-workers, and by fostering the aspirations of potential members of the profession.
Act = Actions/Consequences
We provide the highest level of service to all library users through appropriate and usefully organized resources; equitable service policies; equitable access; and accurate, unbiased, and courteous responses to all requests.
Rule = Rules/Consequences
We recognize and respect intellectual property rights.
Deontology
We uphold the principles of intellectual freedom and resist all efforts to censor library resources.
Act = Act/Obligation
We protect each library user's right to privacy and confidentiality with respect to information sought or received and resources consulted, borrowed, acquired or transmitted.
Rule = Rule/Obligation
We recognize and respect intellectual property rights.
Contract-based
We treat co-workers and other colleagues with respect, fairness and good faith, and advocate conditions of employment that safeguard the rights and welfare of all employees of our institutions.
Character-based
We do not advance private interests at the expense of library users, colleagues, or our employing institutions.
Just-consequentialism
We distinguish between our personal convictions and professional duties and do not allow our personal beliefs to interfere with fair representation of the aims of our institutions or the provision of access to their information resources.




References

ACM Council. (1992). ACM Code of ethics and professional conduct. In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (Eds.), Readings in Cyberethics (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

American Library Association. (1953). Freedom to read statement. ALA Council and AAP Freedom to Read Committee. Chicago. IL: ALA. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/ftrstatement/freedomreadstatement.htm

American Library Association. (1990). Freedom to view statement. ALA Council. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/ftvstatement/freedomviewstatement.htm

American Library Association. (1995). Code of ethics of the American Library Association. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 8, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/codeofethics/codeethics.htm

American Library Association. (1999). Libraries: An American value. Chicago, IL: ALA Council. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/americanvalue/librariesamerican.htm

American Library Association. (2004). Core values of librarianship. ALA Council. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 8, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/corevaluesstatement/corevalues.htm

American Library Association. (2005). ALA policy manual. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/ourassociation/governingdocs/policymanual/policymanual.htm

American Library Association. (2005). Intellectual freedom and policy statements. Office for Intellectual Freedom. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 8, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/oif/statementspols/statementspolicies.htm

American Library Association. (2005). Our Association. Chicago, IL: ALA. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.ala.org/ala/ourassociation/Default262.htm

Association for Computing Machinery. (1992). ACM code of ethics. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://www.acm.org/constitution/code.html

Buchanan, E.A. (2003). Ethical considerations for the information professions.
In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (Eds.), Readings in Cyberethics, (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Elrod, E.M., & Smith, M.M. (2005). Information ethics. In C. Mitcham (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Science, Technology and Ethics (Vol. 2, pp. 1004-1011). Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference.

Gotterbarn, D. (2003). The life cycle of cyber and computing ethics. In R.A. Spinello & H.T. Tavani (Eds.), Readings in Cyberethics (2nd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Tavani, H.T. (2004). Ethics & technology: Ethical issues in an age of information
and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.

Tavani, H.T. (2005). Student companion site: Ethics & technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. Retrieved February 9, 2006, from http://bcs.wiley.com/he- bcs/Books?action=index&itemId=0471249661&bcsId=1604

Library Resources and Methods of Research

Library Resources and Methods of Research

Info Ethics Forums

International Center for Information Ethics
Information Systems Ethics

Teaching Internet Ethics

Teaching Internet Ethics to Teens

"Access to pornography on the Internet doesn't tell the whole story. Kids can find themselves in all sorts of ethical hot water when they go online, whether they are instant messaging, e-mailing, or file sharing, Learn about a method that uses realistic scenarios and an online discussion format to teach students to be responsible online citizens. Topics covered include intellectual property rights, appropriate interpersonal online communication, privacy rights, and free speech rights."
--Frances Jacobsen Harris

Computer Literacy

Ethics Resource Center

E-Pathfinder Draft

E-Pathfinder Draft

Title of the Topic:
“Information Literacy and Ethics for Middle and High School Students and Teachers”

Scope: The E-Pathfinder is designed to provide subject-based guides to resources on information literacy and information ethics. The E-Pathfinder resources include brief annotations, which are intended to inform teachers, to guide instruction, and to be used by middle and high school students. The E-Pathfinder topics include: Academic Honesty, Assessment Criteria, Computer Ethics, Copyright and Fair Use, Ethical Codes, Evaluation of Information Resources, Information Literacy Standards, Intellectual Property, Internet Research, Piracy, Social Responsibility, and Use of Electronic Communication Tools.

Targeted Audience: Resources for middle and high school teachers and their students, concerning information literacy and ethical issues related to information resources and the access and use of information in a variety of formats. The purpose of the E-Pathfinder is to assist teachers in helping middle and high school students develop information literacy while becoming proficient and responsible users of information resources, information technology, and information systems.

E-Pathfinder Blog Resource: http://infoethicsandlit.blogspot.com/
The “Information Literacy and Ethics” blog is an ongoing project, which includes resources to relevant information organized in subject categories and indexed by keyword and topic.

E-Pathfinder Website Resource: http://rightuse.info/
The “Information Literacy and Ethics” website is an ongoing project, providing a subject-based pathfinder to information resources organized by category.

Introduction:
“Information Literacy and Ethics for Middle and High School Students and Teachers” provides a collaborative forum, information pathfinders, information literacy tutorials, and selected resources concerning ethical research practices and the ethical use of information in all formats.

Subjects:

Academic Dishonesty
Abundant Cheating

A Critical Campus Concern, Information Ethics

Academic Dishonesty

Definitions of Academic Dishonesty

Plagiarism

Legal Aspects of Academic Dishonesty

Assessing Information Literacy

Big6 Turbo Tools

TILT

Webquests and Information Literacy: A Collaborative, Active Approach to Learning

Critical Thinking

iReading + iWriting + iThinking + T/n = L3

Code of Ethics for Educators

A Blogger's Code of Ethics

ALA Code of Ethics

A Short Webliography on Computer Ethics for Philosophers

Code of Information Ethics

Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility

InfoLit Standards

Information Literacy Standards for Student Learning

Information and Learning

3 Doors to InfoLiteracy

Information Literacy Readings

Information Literacy Forum

Information Literacy Links

Information Literacy Portals

Information Literacy Tools

Information Ethics

Applied Ethics Resources on WWW

Information Ethics Problem of the Month

Information Ethics Tutorial

National Forum on Information Literacy

Open Directory: Computers, Ethics

Resources on Computer and Ethics

Ten Commandments Of Computer Ethics

Information Literacy and Learning

About Information Literacy

ACRL Information Literacy

Information Literacy

Information Literacy and Access to Resources

Information Literacy Weblog

Information Literacy Models

"The Seven Pillars of Information Literacy" Model

What is information literacy?

Information Literacy Skills

Lessons for developing skills in the areas of:

Questioning

Identifying & Collecting

Evaluating

Sensemaking

Reflecting & Refining

Using

Assessing

21st Century Information Fluency Project

Intellectual Freedom

ALA Intellectual Freedom Statements and Policies

Censorship and Intellectual Freedom FAQs

Censorship, the Internet, Intellectual Freedom, and Youth

Democracy and Intellectual Freedom

Intellectual Freedom and Censorship

Professional Guidelines

"Simulated Intellectual Freedom Debate"

Intellectual Property

Copyright and Fair Use

Copyright, Privacy, and Intellectual Property

Electronic Frontier Foundation: Intellectual Property

Intellectual Property

ithenticate

Research Resources

Turnitin

Understanding Copyrights

What Is Plagiarism?

Internet Ethics

Applied Ethics Resources on WWW

The Berkman Center for Internet and Society at Harvard Law School

Computer Literacy

Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility

A Critical Campus Concern, Information Ethics

Internet Research Ethics

The Internet, Ethics, Plagiarism, and AUPs

Internet Ethics: Oxymoron or Orthodoxy?

An Online Interactive Course in Internet Ethics

Resources on Computer and Ethics

Teaching Internet Ethics to Teens

Open Courseware

Models for Sustainable Open Educational Resources

Open Directory Project

Piracy

Anti-Piracy

The Free Software Foundation

Software Piracy

Types of Piracy

Website Evaluation

Website Evaluation Criteria

Website Evaluation Tutorial


Print Reference Sources:
American Association of School Libraries. (1998). Information power: Building partnerships for learning (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: American Library Association.
Brevik, P.S. (1998). Student learning in the information age. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.
Harris, F. J. (2005). I found it on the Internet: Coming of age online. Chicago, IL: American Library Association.
Simpson, C. (Ed.). (2003). Ethics in school librarianship: A reader. Worthington, OH: Linworth.
Eisenberg, M.B., Lowe, C.A., & Spitzer, K.L. (2004). Information literacy: Essential skills for the information age (2nd ed.) . Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited.

Lessig, L. (2002). The future of ideas: The fate of the commons in a connected world. New York: Random House.

Loertscher, D.B., & Wools, B. (2002). Information literacy: A review of the research. San Jose, CA: Hi Willow Publishing.

Riedling, A.M., & Eisenberg, M.B. (2002). Learning to learn: A guide to becoming information literate. New York: Neal-Shumann.

Spinello, R.A., & Tavani, H.T. (2004). Readings in cyberethics (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett.

Tavani, H.T. (2004). Ethics & technology: Ethical issues in an age of information and communication technology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley $ Sons.

Warlick, D.F. (2004). Redefining literacy for the 21st century. Worthington, OH: Linworth.

Woodbury, M.C. (2003). Computer and information ethics. Champaign, IL: Stipes.

The Information Age

The Application of Copyright

The so-called information age carries new problems for the application of copyright. These problems derive from the switch from physical form to electronic form in the case of so much copyright material.

There are three main types of problem:

Ease of reproduction
Copyrighted material in digital form can be copied perfectly without any damage to or diminution in the quality of the original. Indeed it is possible to create an infinite number of master copies. Such copying is increasingly easy and increasingly cheap.

Electronic transmission adds a further dimension to this problem. Products that can be transmitted on-line can be easily copied and, if such a product is on the Internet, it can be copied anywhere in the world. One author - Diane Coyle in her book "The Death of Distance" - has written "The Internet... can be considered one gigantic copying machine".

Such piracy constitutes a particular problem for the entertainment and software industries. Such products sell, not for what it costs to make a physical object (such as a book or a compact disc), but for a price that may reflect heavy research costs (as in the case of databases), an ingenious idea (such as movies or books), or spending on branding (as with rock groups). Therefore they have high development costs but low production costs.

Difficulties of enforcement

It is becoming much harder to enforce copyright for several reasons:

Electronic media make it more difficult to establish a legal definition of copyright. Any visit to a web site technically involves the automatic downloading of material, however temporarily.
In the era of rapid and easy electronic communications on a global basis, it is difficult to maintain national restrictions on distribution. The sale of books and music at different prices in different countries will not be possible when such products are available on a web site.
Digital products are more prone to personal piracy as opposed to large-scale fraud. One does not need a manufacturing facility to produce or a warehousing facility to store pirated products, but instead one can simply use an ordinary personal computer in the privacy of one's home.
It is increasingly difficult to track down the source of illicit material. Pirated software may be put on the Internet by a person living in one country; it may be held in a computer in a second country; and it may be advertised through a computer in yet a third country.

Difficulties of payment

Payment for use of digitalised material is difficult when the material can be re-used, transformed, and distributed in so may different ways.

Any new payment system will need certain characteristics:

some way of identifying the rights holder which is internationally recognised;
an identifying sign attached to every copyright work in whole or in part;
some system of billing on the basis of micro-payments;
a mechanism for tracking fees due and issuing bills to the correct organisation or individual.

--Roger Darlington

Flexible Copyright

Internet Ethics

Internet Ethics: Oxymoron or Orthodoxy?

An On-line Interactive Course in Internet Ethics

IS THERE A PLACE FOR ETHICS?
--Roger Darlington

"In considering whether there is a place for ethics on the Internet, we need to have understanding of what such a grand word as ‘ethics’ means in this context. I suggest that it means four things:


Acceptance that the Internet is not a value-free zone
This means that the World Wide Web is not the wild wild Web, but instead a place where values in the broadest sense should take a part in shaping content and services. This is a recognition that the Internet is not something apart from civil society, but increasingly a fundamental component of it.


Application of off-line laws to the on-line world
This means that we do not invent a new set of values for the Internet but, for all the practical problems, endeavour to apply the law which we have evolved for the physical space to the world of cyberspace. These laws might cover issues like child pornography, race hate, libel, copyright and consumer protection.


Sensitivity to national and local cultures
This means recognising that, while originally most Internet users were white, male Americans, now the Internet belongs to all. As a pervasively global phenomenon, it cannot be subject to one set of values like a local newspaper or national television station; somehow we have to accommodate a multiplicity of value systems.


Responsiveness to customer or user opinion
This means recognising that users of the Internet – and even non-users – are entitled to have a view on how it works. At the technical level, this is well understood – bodies like the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) end the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) endeavour to understand and reflect user views. However, at no level do we have similar mechanisms for capturing user opinions on content and access to it.

Now that we have a better understanding of what ethics means in the context of the Internet, we need to address the question: whose responsibility is ethics on the net? The answer is that responsibility should be widely spread."

Exploring Cyberspace: The Internet and Society

"A Blogger's Code of Ethics"

"The huge advances in computers and the Internet during the past 20 years have provided a wide range of new ethical and lifestyle concerns. The educational challenge is to help students carefully consider the legal, moral, technological and philosophical issues in this area and make more informed - and hopefully more responsible - decisions in their academic and professional lives."
--Michael Quinn

Academic Dishonesty

Abundant Cheating

Academic Dishonesty

Definitions of Academic Dishonesty

Legal Aspects of Academic Dishonesty

Internet Research Ethics

Plagiarism

"Plagiarism has never been easier than it is today. Before the Internet, cheating was labor-intensive and obvious. Potential plagiarists had to find appropriate works from a limited pool of resources, usually a nearby library, and copy them by hand. Since these resources were almost always professionally written, the risk of detection was very high.
The Internet now makes it easy to find thousands of relevant sources in seconds, and in the space of a short time plagiarists can find, copy, and paste together a term paper, article, or even a book. Because the material online is produced by writers of varying levels of quality and professionalism, it is often difficult or impossible for educators and editors to identify plagiarism.

Even when an instructor or editor does suspect plagiarism, the sheer size of the Internet seems to work in the plagiarist's favor. Search engines can be useful for tracking down suspect passages, but even they have their limitations, given the number, variety, and password-protected nature of many websites. Even where search engines do prove useful, manually searching the Internet for matches of hundreds of papers or articles can be a formidable task.

Additionally, the seemingly "public" nature of online content blurs the distinction between publicly and privately owned information. Electronic resources, by nature easily reproducible, are not perceived as "intellectual property" in the same way that their material counterparts are. Just as peer-to-peer file sharing programs have made it easy to trade copyrighted music files most people would never think to steal in physical form, the Internet makes plagiarism easy for students and writers who might have thought twice about copying from a book or published article.

Perhaps the greatest resources for would-be plagiarists in the educational world are the hundreds of online paper mills that exist solely for the purpose of providing students with quick-fix homework and term-paper solutions. Many of these services contain hundreds of thousands of papers on a wide variety of topics, and some even offer customized papers for an additional fee. The fact that many of these sites have become profitable ventures (complete with paid advertising!) only attests to the unfortunate truth that plagiarism has become a booming industry.

Turnitin and iThenticate offer plagiarism detection services that address this growing problem of intellectual property theft and dishonesty. Organizations around the world have found that an effective plagiarism detection service when combined with plagiarism education serves as an enormously effective deterrent to digital plagiarism."

Research Resources

Turnitin

ithenticate

Ethical Guidelines for Online Research